论文的引用与改写

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Quoting and Paraphrasing in a Research Paper

In your research paper, you should be summarizing and paraphrasing much more often than you are quoting. You may include a quote when:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Language in the original source is especially expressive or powerful. Exact wording is needed for technical accuracy. You might do this when you need to explain a technical process or theory.

You are presenting arguments of other people, and it is important to present those arguments in the original words.

The words of an important authority lend great weight to your argument.

You are analyzing the language of the source—like in your rhetorical analysis paper.

You should never just drop a quotation into your paper. You need some kind of identifying phrase—a signal phrase. Here is a list of verbs you could use. As you look at them, you will see that they are not exact equivalents. You would need to choose the verb that fits the quote you are using. acknowledges adds admits agrees argues asserts believes claims

As you construct your signal phrase, it is a good idea to include a descriptive phrase that lets the reader know why you have chosen to quote this person. For example:

Dr. Walter Scott of Harvard Medical School (2010) strongly contends that, “More studies must be done before we can begin using this therapy”(p. 47).

comments compares confirms contends declares denies disputes emphasizes

endorses grants illustrates implies insists notes observes points out

reasons refutes rejects reports responds suggests thinks writes


It is not necessary to use a complete sentence as your quotation. If you use a part of a sentence, make sure that it fits into your sentence so that it is smooth and grammatical.

Greenfield and Savage-Rumbaugh wrote that Kanzi rarely “repeated himself or formed combinations that were semantically unrelated” (p.556).

Sometimes you may want to leave out a part of a quotation. You can use ellipsis marks—three periods, with one space in between each period. This indicates that something is left out. What remains must be grammatical.

Michael Milstein, a former ranger for the National Park Service, reports that the eastern cougar “is probably already extinct. . . Though rare reports of sighting still surface, a recent search by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service failed to turn up any sightings” (20).

Sometimes you will want to use a quote that contains a word or phrase that is clear in the original context, but will not be clear if you quote only one sentence out of context. This often happens with pronouns. In this case, you can add a clarifying word or phrase substitute a clearer word and put it in brackets to indicate that those words are yours and were not in the original source. Again, make sure the sentence is still clear and grammatical.

“One of the things that produced a stalemate in Rio [the site of the 1992 UN conference on the environment] was the failure of the chief negotiators . . .to recognize the contradictions between the free market and environmental protections.”

The explanation in the brackets makes the significance of “Rio” clear. “On the wall was a portrait of [Sophia].”

In this made-up example, the hypothetical original read, “On the wall was a portrait of her.” In the quote the name is substituted since the pronoun is not clear without context. Paraphrasing

Paraphrasing in your research paper is a very important skill. Summarizing, which we have already discussed and practiced, is similar to paraphrasing. In

paraphrasing, however, generally a much shorter section of text is reworded,

probably a few sentences at most. You will be paraphrasing except for those places where you have decided that a quote is necessary for the clarity and effectiveness of the paper (see above).

Like quotations and summaries, paraphrases MUST be cited. To paraphrase information from a source without a citation is plagiarism.


A paraphrase must be significantly different from the original, but must

communicate the same meaning as the original. To put a rather complicated idea in your own words is not easy; in a second (or third, or whatever) language, it becomes quite challenging. But it is a skill you need to acquire, one that you will use in many, many classes. It is also a good exercise for you—if you can paraphrase correctly, you have accurately understood what you have read.

One way to do this is similar to the approach you took with summarizing—read the text carefully, turn the paper over, and take notes, being careful to use only phrases. Turn the ideas into sentences, changing the order and the grammar as much as possible without changing the meaning. Then look at the original again and check for meaning, making sure that the two are very dissimilar.

Look at the following sentences, both the original and the very short paraphrase:  “Until recently, criminologists could not afford to analyze DNA evidence for all homicide cases.”

 “Crime labs now have the funding to use DNA for all murder cases.” In the paraphrase, we have: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Placed the information in a new order. (We start with “Crime labs” instead of “until recently.”)

Used concrete, direct vocabulary instead of technical terms. (Crime labs instead of criminologists)

Used synonyms for words in the text—make sure yours have the same denotation and connotation. (We changed “homicide” to “murder”) Replaced a word with the phrase or a phrase with a word. (See # 2) Started the sentence differently. (We started with the subject instead of the adverbial phrase—the actor instead of the time)

Changed passive voice into active or negative slant into positive. (The original says “could not afford” –the paraphrase says “have the funding”.)

In addition, where you are explaining a technical or scientific process, or

presenting difficult data, you will want to break complex ideas into small parts. You may take a complex sentence and express the same idea in two or even three sentences.

Your paraphrase should be in the same style as your other writing. This will not be a problem if you follow the instructions on this handout. Paraphrasing takes practice, but it is an important part of writing successful papers.

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